For decades, the caves of Malalmuerzo, Carigüela, and Majólicas in Granada have been touchstones for archaeologists studying prehistoric cannibalism. Now, an international team has re-examined nearly 1,000 human bones from these sites using modern techniques, revealing that cannibalism was not an isolated event but a recurring practice across different periods and social contexts in the Neolithic of the Iberian Peninsula.
Revisiting old collections with new science
The research, published in the Journal of Archaeological Science, combined radiocarbon dating, microscopic analysis of cut marks and fractures, statistical modelling, and machine learning. This allowed the team to date the assemblages for the first time and to distinguish between different types of bone modification—whether from butchery, cooking, or human teeth.
All three caves show clear evidence of cannibalism, but each tells a distinct story. At Malalmuerzo, the remains point to a possible massacre around 5000 BC, with individuals of various ages killed and then consumed. At Carigüela, multiple episodes of cannibalism occurred throughout the Neolithic, and two skulls were carefully modified to be used as containers. At Majólicas, the most recent site, dating to around 3800 BC, the evidence suggests ritual practices rather than violence, with some bones stained red, likely with cinnabar.
“Practices that appear similar may reflect different social realities,” said Antonio Rodríguez-Hidalgo, a Ramón y Cajal researcher at the Institute of Archaeology of Mérida and one of the study’s authors. “Their meaning needs to be analysed by jointly considering chronology, the archaeological context, and the evidence preserved in the bones.”
A broader European pattern
The Granada findings fit into a wider European pattern. Neolithic cannibalism was not continuous but concentrated in specific periods and regions. The researchers identify three main phases: the late 6th millennium BC, the mid-5th millennium BC, and the late 3rd millennium BC, the last already in the Bronze Age.
While no single cause explains all episodes, the team suggests links to changes in social organisation, inter-group relations, and evolving attitudes toward death and violence. The study underscores the value of historical archaeological collections, showing how new techniques can extract unprecedented information from material excavated decades ago.
Among the authors is Miguel C. Botella, then director of the Laboratory of Forensic Archaeology at the University of Granada, whose earlier work was crucial to preserving and studying these remains.
The findings add nuance to our understanding of prehistoric Europe, where cannibalism was once seen as a homogeneous phenomenon. Now, it appears as a complex, context-dependent practice—sometimes violent, sometimes ritual—that shaped the lives of Neolithic communities in southern Spain.
For those interested in the region's deeper history, Granada's seismic risks offer a modern reminder of the landscape's dynamic nature. Meanwhile, the city's cultural scene continues to evolve, as seen in Neorama festival showcasing emerging talent.
