Across Europe, the paradox of temporary work as a permanent condition affects millions. According to Eurofound, the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, roughly one in eleven EU workers is trapped in what it terms involuntary non-standard employment (INE). These are individuals who cycle through part-time, fixed-term, or gig-economy roles because stable, full-time positions remain out of reach.
Eurofound warns that the actual figure may be higher, with young workers disproportionately impacted. The data reveals a continent split into three distinct clusters: Mediterranean nations with the highest instability, a central-eastern European bloc with lower rates, and a group of wealthier countries—Austria, Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Ireland—where INE hovers between 4% and 5%.
Mediterranean Nations Bear the Brunt
Italy leads the EU with nearly one in five workers involuntarily on temporary or part-time contracts, and it has seen the largest increase in such employment since 2006, up six percentage points. Spain follows closely at 17%, while Cyprus, Portugal, and Greece all exceed 12%. Finland is the only non-Mediterranean country in this high-INE group.
The typical INE worker is a blue-collar employee with primary education, according to Eurofound. Women are more exposed than men, with the widest gender gaps in France and Germany, and the narrowest in the United Kingdom, Poland, and Lithuania. Eurofound attributes this to “direct labour market discrimination,” noting that some temporary contracts may serve as “screening devices for workers whose commitment employers perceive as uncertain due to family responsibilities.”
Across the EU, the average INE rate has barely shifted in two decades, falling from 11% in 2006 to around 9% in 2024, after peaking at 13% in 2015.
Poland and Spain: Two Approaches to Reform
Poland and Spain, both among Europe’s fastest-growing economies, have taken different paths to stabilize their labor markets. Poland achieved the bloc’s steepest decline in INE, from nearly 22% in 2006 to just 7% in 2024, thanks to 2016 labour code changes that restricted temporary contracts and raised their taxation, making them less attractive to employers.
Spain introduced a permanent contract for seasonal or intermittent workers—such as baristas, farmers, and hotel staff—called fijo discontinuo. This cyclical contract renews annually with no expiry date, legally compelling employers to recall workers each high season. Other countries showing significant downward trends include Germany and the three Baltic states.
These reforms come amid broader European debates on labor flexibility. For context, the European Commission has been pressing Italy on its industrial strategy and tax reform, as reported in Brussels to Press Italy on Industrial Strategy and Tax Reform.
Voluntary Part-Time Work: The Dutch Exception
In contrast, a handful of countries see high rates of voluntary part-time work. In the Netherlands, 45% of part-time workers deliberately choose such arrangements over full-time contracts, a phenomenon researchers describe as “widespread and culturally embedded.” Neighbouring Belgium shows a 25% rate, following the introduction of the “time-credit system,” a series of laws aimed at increasing work flexibility to help workers balance career and family life, according to a study by the Université catholique de Louvain.
This cultural acceptance of part-time work highlights the diversity of labor market preferences across Europe. While Mediterranean nations grapple with involuntary instability, northern European countries demonstrate that flexibility can be a choice when supported by robust social safety nets and labor protections.
As Europe’s economies evolve, the challenge remains to reduce involuntary precariousness without stifling the flexibility that many workers value. The contrasting experiences of Poland, Spain, and the Netherlands offer lessons for policymakers across the continent.
